Mars And Venus United By Love Essays - Sexuality In Ancient Rome

Mars And Venus United By Love Mars and Venus United by Love by Paolo Veronese is done in the Renaissance style of painting. This is done in this style, because Poalo Veroneses was a Renaissance painter as well as his teacher Titan. The painting takes place in Rome in the Mythological Era. It is not known who commissioned this work. Emperor Rudolf II in Prague owned this piece of artwork as well as four others of Veroneses paintings. Mars is the God of war; and Venus is the Goddess of love.(These are the Roman names for the Greek Gods; which in Greek Venus was called Aphrodite and Mars was actually called Aries.) The theme of this painting has to do with Roman mythology. Cupid is tying Mars and Venus together. There are many different explanations that people have came up with to explain this painting. There is always that tie between love and war, even the saying make love not war. The most common translation would be [Venus, the woman symbolizes chastity transformed by love into charity and that the horse held back by an armed cupid is an emblem of passion restrained](Metropolitan Museum of Art, pg.185) The painting clearly shows Mars and Venus being tied together by a cupid. So I can see why this is the most popular translation of this painting. My personal response was really strong after seeing the painting for the first time. As soon as I saw this painting I knew that it had a deeper meaning to it; and not just some people being tied together by a cupid. I knew right away that it had to do with Roman mythology just from the names. After looking at this painting for a while there is still something that the artist is trying to portray, that is really tough. It feels like there is more going on than what seems. The painting has such a calm tone to it but it gives a little hint of roughness with the sword and the horse, which I think, helps to balance this painting. There is sort of sneakiness to this painting being that it is sort of hidden behind this wall, and that the column of the centaur seems to be looking down at them with a grin on his face. There is one question that I still havent figured out, and would like to know. That is what is going on behind the actual painting, During that time in mythology? What was going on to cause this unification of Mars and Venus? Arts Essays

22 Best Colleges in the South Which Ones Right for You

22 Best Colleges in the South Which One's Right for You SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’re from a Southern state, or you just love sweet tea, hush puppies, delicious BBQ, and saying â€Å"y’all,† you may want to attend college in the South. If you’re considering going to college in the South, you should have an idea of which schools are the best in the region. In this article, I’ll rankthe best colleges in the South and offer tips on finding the best Southern collegesfor you. Which States Are in the South? For my rankings, here are the states that I considered to be in the South: Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, and Kentucky.Interestingly, there is some discrepancy about which states are in the South. How I Ranked the Best Colleges in the South While rankings can be subjective, you can get a general idea of which colleges are better based on their reputations and objective statistics.I placed the best 22 colleges in the South into four tiers, with tier one including the highest ranked schools.I determined my rankings by looking at the rankings from US News, Forbes, and Niche.Each ranking list uses different variables to determine its rankings, but here are some of the most important factors that are considered when determining college rankings: Academic Reputation- The academic reputation of a school is what education experts think about the academics at a particular college. US News gives a peer assessment survey to university presidents, provosts, and deans of admissions to help rate academic quality. Additionally, it surveys high school counselors across the country. Freshman Retention Rate- The freshman retention rate is the percentage of freshmen that return for their sophomore years. Typically, better colleges have higher retention rates. A high retention rate shows that students at the school are satisfied with the school and receiving the necessary support to succeed. Graduation Rate- The graduation rate is the percentage of students that graduate within 6 years. Better schools have higher graduation rates. If a higher percentage of students is graduating, then the students are seen as being more capable, and the college is providing the necessary support and resources to enable students to successfully finish college. Student Selectivity- Student selectivity refers to the qualifications of the students and the competitiveness of the admissions process. Better schools have students with higher high school GPAs and standardized test scores. Also, better schools tend to have lower acceptance rates. More selectivity generally equates to a higher caliber of student. Financial Resources- Ranking lists consider schools’ per student spending. More spending per student is indicative of having more resources and positively influences a school’s ranking. I weighted the US News rankings a little more heavily because US News has the most prestigious ranking list; therefore it has the greatest impact on a school’s reputation.All of the schools were among the 25 top Southern colleges in at least two of the three ranking lists I looked at.Honorable mention schools made the top 25 in at least one list. I included the average standardized test scores, acceptance rates, and US News ranking for each school. Because US News ranks national universities and liberal arts colleges separately, after the ranking, I put NU for national university or LA for liberal arts college.I also put public colleges in bold. Sarah Reid/Flickr The Best Colleges in the South, Ranked Without further ado, here are my rankings of the best Southern colleges. Tier1 The first tier is composed of highly selective private colleges. Their acceptance rates range from 13% to 17%, and they're all ranked in top 20 in US News for national universities. Their graduation rates are between 92% (Rice) and95% (Duke). All three colleges meet 100% of demonstrated financial need. School Location Average SAT Score Average ACT Score Acceptance Rate US News Ranking Duke University Durham, NC 2250 34 13% #8 NU Rice University Houston, TX 2180 33 17% #18 NU Vanderbilt University Nashville, TN 2215 33 13% #15 NU Tier2 There are seven colleges in the second tier. Their acceptance rates range from 18% (Washington and Lee) to 35% (Wake Forest), and they're all in the top 35 in their respective categories in the US News rankings. Their graduation rates are 88% (Wake Forest and Washington and Lee) to 94% (University of Virginia). There are four public colleges and two liberal arts colleges in the second tier. School Location Average SAT Score Average ACT Score Acceptance Rate US News Ranking College of William and Mary Williamsburg, VA 2035 30 33% #34 NU Davidson College Davidson, NC 1992 31 26% #9 LA Emory University Atlanta, GA 2040 30 26% #21 NU University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Chapel Hill, NC 1901 29 29% #30 NU University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA 1997 30 30% #26 NU Wake Forest University Winston-Salem, NC 1325 (on Math and Critical Reading only) 30 35% #27 NU Washington and Lee University Lexington, VA 2082 31 18% #14 LA University of North Carolina graduates (Evonne/Flickr) Tier3 There are six colleges in the third tier, representing five states. Their acceptance rates range from 26% (Tulane) to 47% (University of Florida). Their graduation rates range from81% (University of Texas and University of Miami) to 88% (University of Florida). University of Richmond is the only liberal arts college in this tier. School Location Average SAT Score Average ACT Score Acceptance Rate US News Ranking Georgia Tech Atlanta, GA 2049 31 41% #36 NU Tulane University New Orleans, LA 1985 30 26% #41 NU University of Florida Gainesville, FL 1887 28 47% #47 NU University of Miami Coral Gables, FL 1965 30 40% #51 NU University of Richmond Richmond, VA 1945 30 31% #32 LA University of Texas-Austin Austin, TX 1873 28 40% #52 NU Tier4 There are six colleges in the fourth tier, only one of which is a public university. Their acceptance rates range from 51% (SMU) to 69% (Centre College). Their graduation rates are between77% (SMU) and84% (Furman), and their US News rankings are from 45-61 in their respective categories. School Location Average SAT Score Average ACT Score Acceptance Rate US News Ranking Centre College Danville, KY 1840 28 69% #45 LA Clemson University Clemson, SC 1795 29 57% #61 NU Furman University Greenville, SC 1845 28 64% #51 LA Rhodes College Memphis, TN 1910 29 58% #51 LA Sewanee: University of the South Sewanee, TN 1870 28 60% #48 LA Southern Methodist University Dallas, TX 1935 29 51% #61 NU Southern Methodist University (Ed Uthman/Flickr) Honorable Mention Agnes Scott College Berea College Spelman College Texas AM University University of Alabama University of Georgia Virginia Tech Wofford College How Should You Use This List? If you want to go to one of the best universitiesin the South, research the schools on the list that interest you to determine if you want to apply to them.Think of the factors that are important to you in a college including cost, size, selectivity, location, and the majors offered.Look at the school’s website and use guidebooks, college finders, and search websites to help you in the college selection process. If possible, consult with teachers, counselors, parents, current students, and alumni. Also, just because a school didn’t make the list doesn’t mean it’s a bad school. In your college search, you should identify the school that’s the best fit for you. Some schools may not rank well because they’re not as selective or have fewer financial resources. However, they may have academic programs, professors, and a campus environment that will enable you to have a high quality of life while you’re in school and reach your academic and professional goals. What's Next? Make sure you know how to do college research right. Also, before you complete your college applications, learn everything you need to know about the college essay. Finally, if you're interested in attending a selective college, check out the most selective colleges in the country. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Nursing care study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Nursing care study - Essay Example A description of the condition and symptoms that brought Mrs Davies to the surgical ward from Mrs Davies own perspective will be provided. This information was obtained by asking Mrs Davies and her family relevant questions.The main body of the care study will discuss the nursing assessment and holistic care of Mrs Davies. Although Mrs Davies was continually assessed throughout her stay on the ward, two main problems associated with abdominoplasty will be concentrated upon from the initial assessment, they are mobility and pain and will discussed throughout with reference to appropriate literature and evidence. A conclusion will be drawn with regards to the information discussed in the body of the essay. This will be to provide an overview of the evidence based practice employed in the nursing care of the patient. Prior to beginning this care study verbal consent was obtained from the patient and family, and objectives to doing the study were explained to them. In accordance with the Nursing and Midwifery Council, â€Å"The code of professional conduct† (NMC, 2008) patient confidentiality will be maintained throughout and a pseudonym will be use protect the patients identity therefore throughout this study the patient will be known as Mrs Davies. A 45 year old lady Mrs. Davies is happily married to Mr Davies they have been married for 25 years. They and have 3 daughters; the oldest one is married and lives in London with her family while the other two live with her. She works as a cook supervisor in a secondary school while her husband is a carpenter and has his own business and works from home. However, Mrs Davies mentioned that she did enjoy swimming and walking 2-3 times a week. Over the last 10 years, she has gained a tremendous amount of weight. She gained 15 kilograms of weight in that time which now puts her in to the obese category this is evident from the fact that her current

Describing the box fight Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Describing the box fight - Essay Example Describing the box fight These are a few of the reasons why sometimes, watching at home is better than being there myself. The replays definitely ensured that my need for visual gratification will be satisfied with their well-chosen replays of the highlights of the game. I did not even need to guess which punch hit what place. The media gave all of that to me. I want to relay the commentators’ views verbatim, but I am at a loss. No matter how I probe my brain to remember how they said things, all I can remember were the feelings those words had on me. Still, in this narrative, I will try to relay the details by interpreting and paraphrasing what was retained in my memory. Additionally, in this account, I will also try as much as possible to refer to scenes as I have personally experienced and seen them, to provide the most detailed account of the event I want to narrate. In reference to the title I chose, I am not saying that people are asking for blood, but boxing, as we know it, sort of makes one expect that the more bloody the event is, the more exhilarating the winning is. This was what I felt during the hours of watching a spectacular boxing match a couple of months ago. I was at home cozily sitting on the plush brown sofa I chose to sit on for the event.the mahogany center table, I placed a large bowl of yellow buttered popcorn that I just got out from the microwave. The flavorful scent that permeated the air made me smile as I placed a tall glass of iced tea beside the glass bowl. I was preparing myself to be as excited as the crowd because it is a very much talked about match. Curious to see what this titleholder has to offer, I began to immerse myself in the game. I was trying to listen to what the commentators were saying, and the crowd’s piercing screams caused me a frown or two occasionally. By the middle part of the match, my hand s were already clammy with cold sweat. I did not realize I was so much taken by the events inside the ring. I clutched my white handkerchief, gripping it

Global Communication Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Communication Law - Essay Example It is significant to note that the first amendment does not guard statements pronounced to insult, incite people to do an illegal action, or provoke violence. In addition, the U.S law prohibits utterance of words that aim to promote religious, racial or any kind of discrimination that might lead to violence and hostility. It is against the law for a person to behave in a certain manner otherwise in private if the behavior done due to national or race origin of the other party. Such act that aims to insult, intimidate, offend, or injure other people is prohibited by the law. Freedom of expression, speech, and right to privacy may be limited in cases where they pose a risk to public safety, national security, and territorial integrity (Huffman & Trauth, 82). 2. What constitutes â€Å"obscenity† differs in many nation-states when it comes to pornographic and obscene materials. Do you think that moral-religious censorship laws in non-western societies and freedom of expression in western societies can co-exist in the global village of today? Is there something in the foreign culture that can benefit or lead to improvement of our own system? According to the U.S constitution, obscenity is defined in reference to Miller v California case decided in 1973. Therefore, obscenity refers to a situation where the work shows or explains, in a patently offensive manner, sexual conduct defined by law. Further, obscenity involves a situation where the work described lacks serious scientific, political, literary, or artistic value. U.S states treat pornographic materials as obscene because they contain sexually explicit materials that go against societal moral standards. It is rational to understand that â€Å"Half of obscene materials available on the internet comes from outside the U.S and is thus prohibited by law† (Huffman & Trauth, 99). The foreign cultures provide that no sexually explicit materials should be available or accessible to the public because it contradicts

Factors That Affect Travel And Tourism Tourism Essay

Factors That Affect Travel And Tourism Tourism Essay Hospitality is the relationship between guest and host, or the act or practice of being hospitable. Specifically, this includes the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers, resorts, membership clubs, conventions, attractions, special events, and other services for travelers and tourists. Hotel, motels, inns, or such businesses that provides transitional or short-term lodging, with or without food. The hospitality industry consists of broad category of fields within the service industry that includes lodging, restaurants, event planning, theme parks, transportation, cruise line, and additional fields within the tourism industry.Hospitality also means providing services and welcoming strangers without expecting anything in return. Here if you see and redefine the words Hospital and Hospitality it will give you the same answer. In Hospital a Doctor takes care of a Stranger who comes to him without knowing  who is in front of him with his physical problem and expe cts that he will be taken care properly without any doubt. The patient expects that the right type of treatment is given from the time he comes to the Hospital till he is discharged. Same is with Hospitality. When a strangers walks in who is your Guest he expects a proper welcome with a smile and he is taken care with Proper accommodation, Food and Beverage till he checks out. The stay must be memorable and he should feel fit and fine with the services provided. Question 1 1.1Define the term Hospitality Industry and give examples, advantages, and disadvantages of their use in the hospitality industry? The hospitality industry is a huge and famous industry in this world, and there are multiple areas in this industry. This industry is specialized by training. This gigantic sector includes tourism and tour, traditional hospitality industry such as resorts and hotels, motel and a range of other hospitality services. ( Johnston, 2010). Because of this industry is famous so there is several advantages in this industry. But if we look deep through this industry also got some disadvantages also. The advantage of hospitality industry is that, they afford to provide the full service to their customers. For example, many hotels or resorts are around-the-clock, provide 24-hour operations and staffs are required to work varied shifts and extended hours for their customer satisfaction. Its means they provide the services for their clients all the time. Without bothering the time of the clients ask for the service. For example if any of the clients need foods or any other service at midnight means they can provide all the service to them without any further adore. Besides that, this industry also provides other services such as tour and tourism beside provide only the accommodation service. Mostly the resort department will provide this as their service. It is because mostly the resorts will located at beach site waterfall site. So the people those who are go there can enjoy the beach site by staying there for 2 days or more than 2 days. In this situation, the industry helps their client to enjoy the nature by staying at beach site. The resorts also sometimes will build at jungle site. Those who is interest for stay in jungle for get any deferent experience they can go there and stay there and at the same time can enjoy the jungle life. The hospitality industry is famous for accommodation sector. They provide this sector with multiple categories. For example five star hotel, four star hotels, and three star hotels and so on. So those who are afford to pay the high fee they will choose their standard level hotel such as five star or four star hotels and those who are not afford to pay more fees only for the accommodations for a short period time will choose the lower level hotels. So its shows that this industry provide hotels for all the people according to their living standard. Then glamour myth also a advantage of the hospitality industry. Is means the hotel industry offers you the chance to meet rich, famous and interesting people. So we can meet them at the place where go for rest but at the same time it brings benefit to us. Can get meet any famous person or any important person who are in the same carrier with us. For example, if Im a business person I can get to meet any other business person who is carry on the same business with me, so I can develop my business very well and famous. At the same time they can include scientists attending in-house conferences, foreign tourists, local business people and ordinary everyday citizens. Although you might be able to tell your friends that Hollywoods hottest stars are staying in your hotel, youll probably have to stretch the truth a little to say that you actually talked with them. Celebrities might chat with you like an old friend, out of politeness, only when ordering room service, or not at all. Some may be jovial and even invite you for a drink, while others will treat you with the cool and fun. Furthermore the hospitality industry provides the standard living for their client. They provide services with the standard level such as the rooms that they provide the foods that they provide. They provide the rooms with full furniture and all the equipment. So the client will happily can enjoy all the service of them. So they will satisfy with their service and may be the loyal to the particular hospitality industry. With the advantages of hotel Industry come the disadvantages too. The disadvantage of this industry is long and odd hours. This means that if the client or customer of that particular hotel doesnt like early starts or late finishes, then the hotel industry may not be help them. They may make late to help the client purposely. Besides that, pressure, high standards and deadlines also a disadvantages of the hospitality industry. Working for demanding clients and management is not the downside of working in hotels for it is what the industry is all about but you may find that the pressure of guest and management expectations are more stressful than you ever imagined. Pressure and deadlines are intrinsic elements of the industry and the best hotel workers thrive on conquering the challenges and obstacles placed in the way of personal and company objectives. Culture problem also consider as a disadvantage of this industry. Most of the hospitality industry provides their service with the western style but it not suitable for all the clients of them. For example we can take the Malay religion, they cannot eat all the food especially pork at all and they can eat only halal food so they face some problems. Then also must prepare with at least a special hall for their praying. Because Malays must at the correct time and must carry on the prayer at the special venue which is called as surau if there dont have mosque. So some of the hotel or hospitality management sometimes never provides or forget to prepare all this things to them. Besides Malays, in our country the Indian are sometimes will carry on the vegetarian. So the hotels must prepare the vegetarian foods for them. But they never provide this sometimes. So the clients need to go out site of the hotel for find the foods for them. This shows that the hospitality industry never give important for their clients. As the conclusion, the hospitality industry provides the good service for their client with their variety service. But still this industry needs to improve their service to archive the target of their industry. if they improve all this the customers will get happy and will enjoy with service. Question 2 2.1: Find out the factors that affecting travel and tourism. Explain in detail? Tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outsides their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. The word staying suggests that tourists stay at least one night. However must acknowledge that day visitors make a huge contribution to the tourist industry and some regions and organizations choose to include day visitors in statistics. It is acknowledged by the World Tourism Organization that tourism is the fastest growing economic sector, bringing foreign exchange earnings to countries and creating jobs. Jobs are not only created directly in tourism but in related industries, for example in construction. Much tourism development occurs in developing countries, bringing economic opportunities local communities. There are several factors that affecting travel and tourism industry which influence the industry. The first factors that affect this industry are technological factor. Nowadays the technology develops very well. So also develop in travel and tourism. The growth of e-commerce and new transportation affect the travel and tourism industry. Nowadays the travel system develops well for example the buses that use nowadays is full of air-condition service, with video and audio system. Travel and tourism has always been an industry that has made extensive use of new technology equipment. Central reservation system (CRS), the use of computers in travel agencies and sophisticated databases for marketing purposes are now ordinary. Increase in competition within the industry will force organizations to use new technology to the full. New developments in transportation make extensive use of new technology, for example the Channel Tunnel, the advances in aircraft design and opening up new long-hall destinations. Then more develop bus is super VIP bus. This is consisting of all the service to t he passengers. So the passengers can enjoy the traveling period. Furthermore, another factor is, the technology develops until the passengers or the customers can get the information of the travel and tourism industry in internet. The particular agency will update all the information in web so the customers can check easily all the information about their tour and can easily contact to the particular agency. This makes the agency famous among the people because all over the world can access their information and can consider to the particular agency. At the same time also help the customers to get all their information in detail and faster too. Cultural and environmental factors also affect the travel and tourism industry. In the 1980s saw the emergence in Britain of a greater environmental awareness and a society that was beginning to take its health and fitness seriously. These factors are likely to remain important influences on travel and tourism developments in the future with so-called green issues high on the agenda. The political aspect also affects this industry. The security concerns over travel have had a serious impact on the travel and tourism industry. Which are leading to increased business failures in certain situation if the government never invent in this industry. The government must provides all the services to help the industry such as prepare a good road for travel and railway tracks for the rails travel so the travel and tourism industry can easily can safely travel. Then the choice of destination also affects this industry. Most of the customer likes to travel for a famous and enjoyable place. So they must bring out the travel and tourism to a famous popular place, which got a high demand among the people. Then choose of place should be according to the age group. If want to carry on a travel and tourism, must be a place where got a lots of fun and entertainment but if want to carry on for veterans means place should be suitable for them. So they can enjoy the travel with fullest and the affect also will be the positive type. Other than age group category there got other group category also, such as leisure customers, business customers, independent travelers, package holidaymakers. So the travel and tourism must be carrying on according to deferent types customers. Besides that, the rule and regulation also will affect the travel and tourism industry. The travel thats going to carry should be following the all the rules and regulations that the government stated and the particular place stated. So it will never affect the customers of them. For example, if the tourism place stated that cannot brings camera or video inside means they should tell earlier to their customer so they may follow the rules and will not affect the agency also. If not the agency may affected because did not follow the rules and regulation. While the customers also wont respect to the agency. At the end the customers wont support for the particular industry. The travel and tourism that going to carry on also should be suitable for the season. Because the customers are always like to travel to different destination in a different season. So should carry on the correct travel and tourism event at the correct season. If not it will affect alt the industry. The customer may not will support the agency because they are not giving what they want and they wont satisfy with them at all. At last the food and beverage also will affect the industry, even is not a big issue and important in a travel and tourism industry. The foods that they provide to the customers should be good foods which is not expired or spoiled. If not the customer may get anger with their service and will get disappointment with their service. So if a travel and tourism industry wants to be success means, they should consider all the element of the travel and tourism. And must prepare earlier for everything with full of good service for their customers satisfaction. Conclusion http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSbpXEn1MNc3WlR1eNL_Y7lEYmix5zdVH5pPapH0B3n3gHJT1lhAs the conclusion, we have learnt about the meaning of hospitality and the stages of hospitality industry development from traditional to advanced stage and learnt that hospitality management means how to cater for people in a friendly and cheerful manner to enable the guest appreciate in services. Besides that, we have learnt about the meaning and the importance of housekeeping Department in hotel, motel, guest how we have learn about the interdepartmental co-operations among various departments of the hotel and the importance of hotel industry in our society. Furthermore, we also learnt the meaning and types of non-commercial hospitality management and the type of organization that is available. Lastly we have learnt and understood the meaning of the layout in hospitality industry and the necessary and important factors to consider when plan to establish this industry. Bibliography Website address Anon., 2011. Hospitality industry Profs from the American. [Online] Available at: [Accessed on 25 February 2011] Fareeha.,nd. Disadvantage of hotel industry.[Online] Available at: [Accessed on 17 February 2011] Johnston, A., 2010. Definition of hospitality industry. [Online] Available at: [Accessed on 13 March 2011] Anon.,nd. The travel and tourism industry.[Online] Available at: [Accessed on 15 March 2011 Shlotta., 2009. Factors affecting travel and tourism industry. [Online] Available at: [Accessed on 25 February 2011]

Global Positioning System :: Space Satellites Technology Essays

Global Positioning System Did you know that there are 24 GPS satellites in orbit at this moment? The 24 satellites cost an estimated $12 billion to build and launch. Each satellite weighs about 1,735 lb and takes 12 hours to orbit the Earth once. They are in orbit about 12,500 mi above the Earth. The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978 followed by the launching of the first Block 2 satellite, second generation of GPS satellites, in 1989. GPS stands for Global Positioning System, which is a worldwide radio navigation system. It is a network made up of 24 satellites which orbit the earth and allow a person to receive information about their location. These satellites will allow to pin point your exact location and calculate your coordinates. Now with the advancement in technology, you can make 6measurements of where you are to the nearest centimeter. So GPS allows to determine your precise longitude, latitude and altitude anywhere in the planet. GPS works through handheld GPS units which are easily available anywhere. Nowadays with the advancement in technology they are being used not only in ships and airplanes, but are now built into cars as well. This helps a driver if they get lost. As for the hand held units, they are great for hikers or those who travel on foot or bikes. It wont be soon before GPS will become as basic as telephones. As mentioned before, there is a network of 24 satellites that orbit the Earth. It is required to have at least four of them above the horizon. Usually though, there are around eight satellite’s available. GPS works using these satellites to measure the distances between places by means of radio waves. Distance is calculated by the amount of time taken by signal to travel from satellite to receiver. This time can be calculated using two kinds of clocks. An atomic clock or an quartz clock. An atomic clock would be extremely precise for this operation, however with its high cost it is not feasible to use. So then with its high costs, atomic clocks are only employed in satellites.

Personality and Values

CHAPTER 4 Personality and Values LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Define personality, describe how it is measured, and explain the factors that determine an individual’s personality. 2. Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and assess its strengths and weaknesses. 3. Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model. 4. Demonstrate how the Big Five traits predict behavior at work. 5. Identify other personality traits relevant to OB. . Define values, demonstrate the importance of values, and contrast terminal and instrumental values. 7. Compare generational differences in values and identify the dominant values in today’s workforce. 8. Identify Hofstede’s five value dimensions of national culture. Summary and Implications for Managers Personality – What value, if any, does the Big Five model provide to managers? From the early 1900s through the mid-1980s, researchers sought to f ind a link between personality and job performance. The outcome of those 80-plus years of research was that personality and job performance were not meaningfully related across traits or situations. †[i] However, the past 20 years have been more promising, largely due to the findings surrounding the Big Five. Screening candidates for jobs who score high on conscientiousness—as well as the other Big Five traits, depending on the criteria an organization finds most important—should pay dividends. Each of the Big Five traits has numerous implications for important OB criteria.Of course, managers still need to take situational factors into consideration. [ii] Factors such as job demands, the degree of required interaction with others, and the organization’s culture are examples of situational variables that moderate the personality–job performance relationship. You need to evaluate the job, the work group, and the organization to determine the optimal p ersonality fit. Other traits, such as core self-evaluation or narcissism, may be relevant in certain situations, too. Although the MBTI has been widely criticized, it may have a place in organizations.In training and development, it can help employees to better understand themselves and it can help team members to better understand each other. And it can open up communication in work groups and possibly reduce conflicts. Values -Why is it important to know an individual’s values? Values often underlie and explain attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions. So knowledge of an individual’s value system can provide insight into what â€Å"makes the person tick. † Employees’ performance and satisfaction are likely to be higher if their values fit well with the organization.For instance, the person who places great importance on imagination, independence, and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with an organization that seeks conformity from its employees. Manag ers are more likely to appreciate, evaluate positively, and allocate rewards to employees who â€Å"fit in,† and employees are more likely to be satisfied if they perceive that they do fit in. This argues for management to strive during the selection of new employees to find job candidates who have not only the ability, experience, and motivation to perform but also a value system that is compatible with the organization’s.The chapter opens by introducing Stephen Schwarzman, CEO of the Blackstone Group. He profited to the tune of $7. 75 billion when his company went public. His combative style has not hindered his success as Fortune called him the â€Å"King of Wall Street. † Using military terms like war and he would rather kill off his rival; Blackstone has thrived under his leadership and has become one of the most profitable and feared investment groups on Wall Street. Schwarzman is not the easiest to work for. One executive was purportedly fired for the sou nd his nose made when he breathed.He may be a huge success but would you be willing to work for him? Brief Chapter Outline I. Personality A. What Is Personality? (PPT. 4–2) †¢ A dynamic concept †¢ Defined: the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others B. Personality Determinants (PPT 4-3) 1. Introduction †¢ Early arguments suggest heredity and environment. Current literature suggests three factors: heredity, environment, and situation. 2. Heredity 3. Environment C. Personality Traits (PPT 4-4) 1. Introduction 2.Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (PPTs 4–5 – 4 – 6) †¢ Widely used in practice by major companies. 3. The Big Five Model (PPT 4–7) †¢ Five Basic Dimensions: o Extraversion o Agreeableness o Conscientiousness o Emotional stability o Openness to experience †¢ Research indicates relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance. D. How Do the Big Five Traits Pr edict Behavior? (PPT 4–8) †¢ Research has shown this to be a better framework. †¢ Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to higher job performance E.Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB (PPT 4–9) 1. Core Self-Evaluation (Self-perspective) (PPT 4–9) †¢ Locus of Control o Internals o Externals †¢ Self-esteem †¢ Directly related to expectations for success 2. Machiavellianism (PPT 4–9) †¢ Individuals high on this dimension—pragmatic, emotional distance, and belief that the ends justify the means 3. Narcissism (PPT 4–9) †¢ Narcissists tend to be selfish and exploitive. 4. Self-Monitoring (PPT 4–10) †¢ Ability to adjust behavior to external, situational factors 5. Risk Taking (PPT 4–10) Managers in large organizations tend toward risk aversiveness. 6. Type A Personality (PPT. 4–11) †¢ A Type A personality is characterized as constant motion, impatient, obsessed with m easuring self-performance; whereas a Type B Personality (PPT 4–11) is more relaxed; does not suffer from a sense of time urgency. 7. Proactive Personality (PPT 4–11) †¢ Create positive change in their environments. †¢ More likely seen as leaders and change agents F. Personality and National Culture †¢ High amount of agreement among individuals in a country †¢ No common personality types for a country I.Values A. Introduction †¢ Values represent basic convictions: (PPT 4–12) o There is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable. o Values have both content and intensity attributes. o Values are not generally fluid and flexible. ? They tend to be relatively stable and enduring. ? A significant portion of the values we hold is established in our early years—from parents, teachers, friends, and others. B. Importance of Values (PPT 4–13) †¢ Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motiv ation. †¢ Values generally influence attitudes and behavior. C.Types of Values 1. Rokeach Value Survey (PPTs 4–14 to 4–16) (Exhibit 4–3) †¢ Two sets of values, each set had 18 individual value items: o Terminal values—refer to desirable end-states of existence, the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime o Instrumental values—refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values †¢ Several studies confirm that the RVS values vary among groups. o People in the same occupations or categories tend to hold similar values. Although there may be overlap among groups, there are some significant differences as well. (Exhibit 4–4) 2. Contemporary Work Cohorts †¢ Different generations hold different work values. o Veterans—entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s. o Boomers—entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid-1980s. o Xer s—began to enter the workforce from the mid-1980s. o Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce. D. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior (PPT 4–17) †¢ Many people think there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 1970s.The four-stage model of work cohort values might explain this perception. (Exhibit 4–5) †¢ Managers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor influencing ethical and unethical behavior in the organization. II. Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace A. Person-Job Fit †¢ Personality-job fit theory (PPTs 4–18 to 4–21) (Exhibit 4–6) o Each personality type has a congruent occupational environment. B. The Person-Organization Fit †¢ People leave organizations that are not compatible with their personalities. Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) o Match individual values to organization’s values. IV. Global Implications A. Personality . B. Values Across Cultures 1. Introduction †¢ Values differ across cultures. 2. Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures (PPTs 4-22 – 4-28) †¢ One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing variations among cultures has been done by Geert Hofstede. o Power distance o Individualism versus collectivism o Masculinity versus femininity o Uncertainty avoidance Long-term versus short-term orientation 3. The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures (Exhibit 4–8) †¢ In 1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) began updating this research with data from 825 organizations and 62 countries. †¢ Nine dimensions on which national cultures differ: o Assertiveness o Future orientation o Gender differentiation o Uncertainty avoidance o Power distance o Individualism/collectivism o In-group collectivism o Performance orientation o Humane orientation 4. Implications for OBV. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATI ONS FOR MANAGERS (PPT 4-30) A. Personality ? Conscientiousness is often a major factor for successful employees ? The MBTI can be used to better understand each other ? Managers use the Big Five to view employee personality B. Values ? Values influence attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors ? Values can be measured using the Rokeach Values Survey ? It is important that the values of the employee and the organization match Expanded Chapter Outline Personality A. What Is Personality? Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system; it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. †¢ Gordon Allport coined the most frequent used definition: o â€Å"The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment† †¢ The text defines personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. †¢ It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits.B. Personality Determinants 1. Introduction †¢ An early argument centered on whether or not personality was the result of heredity or of environment. o Personality appears to be a result of both influences. o Today, we recognize a third factor—the situation. 4 Situation: 5 Influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality 6 The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one’s personality. 7 There is no classification scheme that tells the impact of various types of situations. 8 Situations seem to differ substantially in the constraints they impose on behavior. . Heredity †¢ Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. †¢ The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the ch romosomes. †¢ Three different streams of research lend some credibility to the heredity argument: o The genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. Evidence demonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear, and distress are most likely caused by inherited genetic characteristics. One hundred sets of identical twins that were separated at birth were studied. Genetics accounts for about 50 percent of the variation in personality differences and over 30 percent of occupational and leisure interest variation. o Individual job satisfaction is remarkably stable over time. This indicates that satisfaction is determined by something inherent in the person rather than by external environmental factors. †¢ Personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. If they were, they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter them. . Environment †¢ Factors that exert pressures on our personality formation: o The cult ure in which we are raised o Early conditioning o Norms among our family o Friends and social groups †¢ The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role in shaping our personalities. †¢ Culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values passed from one generation to the next and create consistencies over time. †¢ The arguments for heredity or environment as the primary determinant of personality are both important. Heredity sets the parameters or outer limits, but an individual’s full potential will be determined by how well he or she adjusts to the demands and requirements of the environment. C. Personality Traits 1. Introduction †¢ Early work revolved around attempts to identify and label enduring characteristics. o Popular characteristics include shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid. These are personality traits. o The more consistent the characteristic, the more frequently it occurs, the more important it is. Resea rchers believe that personality traits can help in employee selection, job fit, and career development. 2. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator †¢ One of the most widely used personality frameworks is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). †¢ It is a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. †¢ Individuals are classified as: o Extroverted or introverted (E or I). o Sensing or intuitive (S or N). o Thinking or feeling (T or F). o Perceiving or judging (P or J). †¢ These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types.For example: o INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn. o ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for business or mechanics. o The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments. MBTI is widely used in practice. Some organizations using it include Apple Computer, AT&T, Citigroup, GE, 3M Co. and others. 3. The Big Five Model †¢ An impressive body of research supports that five basic dimensions underlie all other personality dimensions. The five basic dimensions are: o Extraversion. Comfort level with relationships. Extroverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet. o Agreeableness. Individual’s propensity to defer to others. High agreeableness people—cooperative, warm, and trusting.Low agreeableness people—cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic. o Conscientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score l ow on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. o Emotional stability. A person’s ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure. o Openness to experience. The range of interests and fascination with novelty.Extremely open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the openness category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar. †¢ Research found important relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance. o A broad spectrum of occupations was examined in addition to job performance ratings, training proficiency (performance during training programs), and personnel data such as salary level. o The results showed that conscientiousness predicted job performance for all occupational groups. Individuals who are dependable, reliab le, careful, thorough, able to plan, organized, hardworking, persistent, and achievement-oriented tend to have higher job performance. o Employees higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge. o There is a strong and consistent relationship between conscientiousness and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). o For the other personality dimensions, predictability depended upon both the performance criterion and the occupational group. o Extroversion predicts performance in managerial and sales positions. Openness to experience is important in predicting training proficiency. D. How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior? †¢ Research has shown relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance. †¢ Employees who score higher for example in conscientiousness, develop higher levels of job knowledge †¢ Extraverts tend to be happier in their jobs and do better in jobs that require significant interpersonal interaction probably b ecause they have better social skills. E. Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB 1. Core Self-Evaluation (Self-perspective) People who have a positive core self-evaluation see themselves as effective, capable, and in control. †¢ People who have a negative core self-evaluation tend to dislike themselves. †¢ Locus of control o A person’s perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control. ? There is not a clear relationship between locus of control and turnover because there are opposing forces at work. o Internals: People who believe that they are masters of their own fate ? Internals, facing the same situation, attribute organizational outcomes to their own actions.Internals believe that health is substantially under their own control through proper habits; their incidences of sickness and, hence, their absenteeism, are lower. ? Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one should consider differences in jobs. ? Internals search more ac tively for information before making a decision, are more motivated to achieve, and make a greater attempt to control their environment, therefore, internals do well on sophisticated tasks. ? Internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of action. Externals: People who believe they are pawns of fate ? Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs than are internals. ? Externals are more compliant and willing to follow directions, and do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and in which success depends heavily on complying with the direction of others. †¢ Self-esteem o Self-esteem—the degree to which people like or dislike themselves. (SE) is directly related to expectations for success. o Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose un conventional jobs than people with low self-esteem. o The most generalizable finding is that low SEs are more susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. o In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others. o High SEs are more satisfied with their jobs than are low SEs. 2. Machiavellianism Named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the sixteenth century on how to gain and use power. †¢ An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. †¢ High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and persuade others more. †¢ High Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and flourish when they interact face-to-face with others, rather than indirectly, and when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation. High Machs m ake good employees in jobs that require bargaining skills or that offer substantial rewards for winning. 3. Narcissism †¢ Describes a person who has a grandiose sense of self-importance. †¢ They â€Å"think† they are better leaders. †¢ Often they are selfish and exploitive. 4. Self-Monitoring †¢ This refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. †¢ Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability. They are highly sensitive to external cues, can behave differently in different situations, and are capable of presenting striking contradictions between heir public persona and their private self. †¢ Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation resulting in a high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do. †¢ The research on self-monitoring is in its infancy, so p redictions must be guarded. Preliminary evidence suggests: o High self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of others. o High self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers and receive more promotions. High self-monitor is capable of putting on different â€Å"faces† for different audiences. 5. Risk Taking †¢ The propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require before making their choice. †¢ High risk-taking managers make more rapid decisions and use less information in making their choices. †¢ Managers in large organizations tend to be risk averse; especially in contrast with growth-oriented entrepreneurs. †¢ Makes sense to consider aligning risk-taking propensity with specific job demands. 6. Type A Personality Type A personality is â€Å"aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and mo re in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons. ’’ †¢ They are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly, are impatient with the rate at which most events take place, are doing do two or more things at once and cannot cope with leisure time. †¢ They are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire. †¢ In contrast to the Type A personality is the Type B Personality. Type B’s never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience. o Type B’s feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation. o Type B’s play for fun and relaxation, rather than exhibit their superiority at any cost. o They can relax without guilt. †¢ Type A personality compared to Type B personality o Type A’s operate under moderate to high levels of stress. They subject themselves to continuous time pressure, are fast workers, quantity over quality, work long hours, and are also rarely creative. Type A’s behavior is easier to predict than that of Type B’s. o Do Type A’s differ from Type B’s in their ability to get hired? ? Type A’s do better in job interviews; are more likely to be judged as having desirable traits such as high drive, competence, and success motivation. 7. Proactive Personality †¢ Actively taking the initiative to improve their current circumstances while others sit by passively †¢ Proactives identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere. †¢ Create positive change in their environment. More likely to be seen as leaders and change agents †¢ More likely to achieve career success F. Personality and National Culture †¢ The five personality factors identified in the Big Five model are found in almost all cross-cultur al studies. †¢ There are no common personality types for a given country. †¢ There are Type A’s in every country, but they tend to be more found in capitalist countries. Values A. Introduction †¢ Values Represent Basic Convictions o A specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of onduct or end-state of existence. o They have both content and intensity attributes. o An individual’s set of values ranked in terms of intensity is considered the person’s value system. o Values have the tendency to be stable. o Many of our values were established in our early years from parents, teachers, friends, and others. B. Importance of Values †¢ Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation. †¢ Values generally influence attitudes and behaviors. We can predict reaction based on understanding values. C.Types of Values (Value Classifications) 1. Roke ach Value Survey (Exhibit 4–3) †¢ This instrument contains two sets of values; each set has 18 value items. o Terminal Values—refer to desirable end states of existence. ? The goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime o Instrumental Values—refer to preferable modes of behavior. ? Means of achieving the terminal values o Several studies confirm that the RVS values vary among groups. o People in the same occupations or categories tend to hold similar values. Although there may be overlap among groups, there are some significant differences as well. 2. Contemporary Work Cohorts †¢ Different generations hold different work values. o Veterans—entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s. o Boomers—entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid-1980s. o Xers—entered the workforce beginning in the mid-1980s. o Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce. D. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior †¢ Many people think there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 1970s. †¢ The four-stage model of work cohort alues might explain this perception (Exhibit 4–5). †¢ Managers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor influencing ethical and unethical behavior in organizations. III. Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace A. The Person-Job Fit: †¢ This concern is best articulated in John Holland’s personality-job fit theory. o Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a job depends on the degree to which individuals successfully match their personalities to an occupational environment.The six personality types are: realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic o Each one of the six personality types has a congruent occupational environment. o Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire contains 160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which of these occupations they like or dislike; their answers are used to form personality profiles. o The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement. B. The Person-Organization Fit Most important for an organization facing a dynamic and changing environment, and requiring employees who are able to readily change tasks and move fluidly between teams †¢ It argues that people leave jobs that are not compatible with their personalities. †¢ Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) o Individuals have to sort their values in terms of importance. o Forced choice rationale—having to make hard choices that one’s true values become apparent o Match personal values to those of the organization.IV. Global Implications 1. Introduction †¢ Do personality frameworks like the Big Five Model transfer across cultures? There is a surprising amount of agreement across industrialized countries that they do. †¢ Values differ across cultures; therefore, understanding these differences helps to explain and to predict behavior of employees from different countries. One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing variations among cultures has been done by Geert Hofstede. 2. Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures Five value dimensions of national culture: o Power distance: The degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. o Individualism versus collectivism: Individualism is the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups. Collectivism equals low individualism. o Masculinity versus femininity: Masculinity is the degree to which values such as the acquisition of money and material goods prevail. Femininity is the degree to which people value relationships and show sensitivity and concern for others. Uncertainty avoidance: The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations. o Long-term versus short-term orientation: Long-term orientations look to the future and value thrift and persistence. Short-term orientation values the past and present and emphasizes respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations. †¢ Hofstede Research Findings: o Asian countries were more collectivist than individualistic. o United States ranked highest on individualism. o German and Hong Kong rated high on masculinity. o Russia and The Netherlands were low on masculinity. China and Hong Kong had a long-term orientation. o France and the United States had short-term orientation. 3. The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures †¢ Hofstede’s work is the basic framework for assessing cultures. However, it is nearly 30 years old. In 1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) began updating this res earch with data from 825 organizations and 62 countries. †¢ GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures (Exhibit 4–8): o Assertiveness: The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, confrontational, assertive, and competitive versus modest and tender. Future orientation: The extent to which a society encourages and rewards future-oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future and delaying gratification. o Gender differentiation: The extent to which a society maximized gender role differences. o Uncertainly avoidance: Society’s reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events. o Power distance: The degree to which members of a society expect power to be unequally shared. o Individualism/collectivism: The degree to which individuals are encouraged by societal institutions to be integrated into groups within organizations and society. In-group collectivism: The extent to which society’s members take pride in membership in small groups such as their families and circles of close friends, and the organizations where they are employed. o Performance orientation: The degree to which society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence. o Humane orientation: The degree to which a society encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others. †¢ GLOBE Research Findings: o The GLOBE study had extended Hofstede’s work rather than replaced it. It confirms Hofstede’s five dimensions are still valid and provides updated measures of where countries are on each dimension. For example, the United States in the 70s led the world in individualism—today, it is in the mid-ranks of countries. 1. Implications for OB †¢ Twenty years ago organizational behavior had a strong American bias †¢ Many of the studies were completed with only American samples †¢ Now there has been a n increase in cross-cultural research †¢ OB is a global discipline V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS A. Personality The Big Five provides a meaningful way for managers to examine personality ? Managers should look for employees high on conscientiousness ? Situational factors should be taken into consideration, they do impact personality-job performance ? The MBTI can be used for teams to better understand each other B. Values ? Values influence a person’s attitudes, perceptions and behaviors ? The Rokeach Values Survey can be used to measure an employee’s values ? Employees are often rewarded more often when their personal values match those of the organizationText Exercises |Myth or | | |Science? |†Entrepreneurs Are a Breed Apart† | This statement is true. A review of 23 studies on the personality of entrepreneurs revealed significant differences between entrepreneurs and managers on four of the Big Five: Entrepreneurs scored significantly hig her on conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience, and they scored significantly lower on agreeableness.Though of course not every entrepreneur achieves these scores, the results clearly suggest that entrepreneurs are different from managers in key ways. A fascinating study of MBA students provides one explanation for how entrepreneurs are different from others. Studying male MBA students with either some or no prior entrepreneurial experience, the authors found that those with prior experience had significantly higher levels of testosterone (measured by taking a saliva swab at the beginning of the study) and also scored higher on risk propensity.The authors of this study concluded that testosterone, because it is associated with social dominance and aggressiveness, energizes individuals to take entrepreneurial risks. Because individual differences in testosterone are 80 percent inherited, this study adds more weight to the conclusion that entrepreneurs are d ifferent from others. What’s the upshot of all this? An individual who is considering a career as an entrepreneur or a business owner might consider how she scores on the Big Five. To the extent that she is high in conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness and low in agreeableness, such a career might be for her.Class Exercise Place the students in teams of five. 1. Have one set of teams brainstorm specific traits essential to being a good professor. 2. Another set of teams should brainstorm job tasks handled by a good professor. 3. Have the teams record their criteria on the board. 4. As a class, create one set of five traits and five tasks for a professorial position. 5. Ask students what questions or teaching artifacts students would ask or review in matching professorial candidates to their jobs. International [pic] A Global PersonalityDetermining which employees will succeed on overseas business assignments is often difficult for an organization’s manag ers because the same qualities that predict success in one culture may not in another. Researchers, however, are naming personality traits that can help managers home in on which employees would be suited for foreign assignments. Organizational psychologist Robert Hogan, for example, states that emotional maturity, remaining composed under pressure, and being comfortable with uncertainty are traits that breed success in most jobs, and these traits may be especially valuable for the overseas employee to possess.In addition, according to the Center for Global Assignments (CGA), successful global executives tend to be open-minded and imaginative, and they also enjoy talking and networking with others. Other traits that have been linked to overseas employment success include curiosity and risk tolerance. Viewed from the perspective of the Big Five, characteristics such as open-mindedness and curiosity are similar to the Big Five trait openness to experience, while characteristics such a s enjoying talking with others and networking resemble the Big Five trait extraversion.For the overseas employee, being more open and extraverted may be particularly helpful in breaching communication barriers and cultivating trust, which in turn promotes cooperation. What is the ultimate upshot for organizations? When it comes to choosing employees for global assignments, personality can make a difference. Source: Based on J. E. Fernandez, â€Å"The Making of a Global Executive,† Journal of Business Strategy 24, no. 5, (2003), pp. 36–38. Class Exercise While the chapter does not contain this element, you may wish to choose from one of the other instructional resources provided for this chapter. [pic] IN THE [pic] Are U.S. Values Different? People in the United States are used to being criticized. After all, it was more than a century ago when the Irish playwright George Barnard Shaw wrote, â€Å"Americans adore me and will go on adoring me until I say something nice about them. † But as a result of the Iraq War and the fact that the United States is the world’s lone remaining superpower, its citizens are taking unprecedented criticism abroad. One critic sneered, â€Å"The American pursuit of wealth, size, and abundance—as material surrogates for happiness—is aesthetically unpleasing and ecologically catastrophic. † And many Europeans think that U. S. dults are obsessed with work. Some have even argued that the United States and Europe are becoming increasingly polarized. Overall, the United States is wealthier than Europe and has higher productivity. But what’s wrong with that? Well, some stats are not very positive. For example, compared to Europe, the United States is much more violent; it has 685 prisons for every 100,000 people, compared to 87 in the European Union. The United States has also increasingly seemed to reward power with money. For example, in 1980, the average CEO in the United States ea rned 40 times the annual income of the average manufacturing employee.Today, that ratio is 475:1! By comparison, the ratios are 24:1 in the U. K. , 15:1 in France, and 13:1 in Sweden. Finally, the United States contains 5 percent of the world’s population, but it is responsible for 25 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas output—which is, many scientists argue, responsible for global warming. Values may account for some of these differences. For example, in a study of people in 14 countries, those in the United States were more likely than others to see natural resources as elements at their disposal. And compared to Europeans, U. S. dults are more likely to believe that war is often necessary, that it is right to kill to defend property, and that physical punishment of children is necessary. Do you think U. S. values are an underlying factor behind some of these social phenomena? Or is this academic U. S. bashing? Based on: T. Judt, â€Å"Europe vs. America,â €  New York Review of Books, February 20, 2005, www. nybooks. com/articles/17726; P. W. Schultz and L. Zelezny, â€Å"Values as Predictors of Environmental Attitudes: Evidence for Consistency Across 14 Countries,† Journal of Environmental Psychology, September 1999, pp. 255–265; and A. McAlister, P. Sandstrom, P.Puska, A. Veijo, R. Chereches, and L. Heidmets, â€Å"Attitudes Towards War, Killing, and Punishment of Children Among Young People in Estonia, Finland, Romania, the Russian Federation, and the USA,† Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79, no. 5 (2001), pp. 382–387. Class Exercise This class exercise can help introduce the concept of â€Å"ethnocentrism† as it relates to value systems. It also may elicit some significant debate concerning the value system of â€Å"Americans† and others in the global economy. It is important to attempt to have students examine the arguments from a global perspective. 1. Have students break in to small groups.In each group have students examine each of the issues raised in the vignette (e. g. work obsession, crime and violence, executive compensation, utilization of natural resources). 2. Have students develop a value-based argument defending the position of the United States in terms of each of the issues. 3. Have students then take the same issues from a different global perspective. For example, you may wish to assign each group as a different â€Å"culture† (e. g. China, Japan, European Union, etc). 4. Have students report to the class. You may have an opportunity to encourage interesting debate of the issues.You should also incorporate Hofstede’s and GLOBE’s cultural analyses in the discussion. Point ( ( Counterpoint Traits Are Powerful Predictors of Behavior[iii] Point The essence of trait approaches in OB is that employees possess stable personality characteristics that significantly influence their attitudes toward, and behavioral reactions to , organizational settings. People with particular traits tend to be relatively consistent in their attitudes and behavior over time and across situations. Of course, trait theorists recognize that all traits are not equally powerful. They tend to put them into one of three categories.Cardinal traits are those so strong and generalized that they influence every act a person performs. Primary traits are generally consistent influences on behavior, but they may not show up in all situations. Finally, secondary traits are attributes that do not form a vital part of the personality but come into play only in particular situations. For the most part, trait theories have focused on the power of primary traits to predict employee behavior. Trait theorists do a fairly good job of meeting the average person’s face-validity test. Think of friends, relatives, and acquaintances you have known for a number of years.Do they have traits that have remained essentially stable over time? Most o f us would answer that question in the affirmative. If Cousin Anne was shy and nervous when we last saw her 10 years ago, we would be surprised to find her outgoing and relaxed now. Managers seem to have a strong belief in the power of traits to predict behavior. If managers believed that situations determined behavior, they would hire people almost at random and structure the situation properly. But the employee selection process in most organizations places a great deal of emphasis on how applicants perform in interviews and on tests.Assume you’re an interviewer and ask yourself: What am I looking for in job candidates? If you answered with terms such as conscientious, hardworking, persistent, confident, and dependable, you’re a trait theorist. Counterpoint Few people would dispute that there are some stable individual attributes that affect reactions to the workplace. But trait theorists go beyond that generality and argue that individual behavior consistencies are widespread and account for much of the differences in behavior among people.There are two important problems with using traits to explain a large proportion of behavior in organizations. First, organizational settings are strong situations that have a large impact on employee behavior. Second, individuals are highly adaptive, and personality traits change in response to organizational situations. It has been well known for some time that the effects of traits are likely to be strongest in relatively weak situations and weakest in relatively strong situations.Organizational settings tend to be strong situations because they have rules and other formal regulations that define acceptable behavior and punish deviant behavior, and they have informal norms that dictate appropriate behaviors. These formal and informal constraints minimize the effects of personality traits. POINT/COUNTERPOINT (Continued) By arguing that employees possess stable traits that lead to cross-situational consiste ncies in behaviors, trait theorists are implying that individuals don’t really adapt to different situations.But there is a growing body of evidence that an individual’s traits are changed by the organizations that individual participates in. If the individual’s personality changes as a result of exposure to organizational settings, in what sense can that individual be said to have traits that persistently and consistently affect his or her reactions to those very settings? Moreover, people typically belong to multiple organizations that often include very different kinds of members. And they adapt to those different situations.Instead of being the prisoners of a rigid and stable personality framework, as trait theorists propose, people regularly adjust their behavior to reflect the requirements of various situations. Class Exercise 1. Divide the class into two groups—one group to take on the issues raised in Point, the other group to take on the issues r aised in Counterpoint. You may want to divide each half into smaller groups to enable all class members to participate in the group’s discussions. 2. Ask the class to act as an organization’s management team.Their job is make a recommendation as to what types of testing they will use in their organization when selecting employees for hire or promotion using the issues assigned by the Point/Counterpoint arguments. Which types of testing will be used and why? (You may want to give students time to do some research—either Internet or Library—on this topic. There are several exercises in the Exploring OB Topics on the World Wide Web section at the end of this chapter. ) 3. Have students present their recommendations to the class and make a decision as to what is the best argument for testing, type of test, etc.What gains do they expect as a result of the testing? 4. Have them list the recommendations and benefits on the board for the class to evaluate during the discussion. 5. You may want them to research the cost of implementing these tests in an organization. Does testing cost of testing offset the benefits? Questions for Review 1. What is personality? How do we typically measure it? What factors determine personality? Answer: Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, the measurable traits a person exhibits. It is typically measured using self-reporting surveys.Observer-ratings surveys that provide an independent assessment of personality is often better predictors. Personality seems to be the result of both hereditary and environmental factors. Heredity refers to factors determined at conception: physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and bio-rhythms 2. What is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and what does it measure? Answer: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), is the most widely used instrument in th e world to determine personality attributes.Participants are classified on four axes to determine one of 16 possible personality types. It measures – extroverted/introverted; sensing/intuitive; thinking/feeling; and judging/perceiving attributes. 3. What are the Big Five personality traits? Answer: Extroversion – Sociable, gregarious, and assertive Agreeableness – Good-natured, cooperative and trusting Conscientiousness – responsible, dependable and organized Emotional Stability – calm, self-confident versus negative and depressed Openness to experience – Curious, imaginative 4. How do the Big Five traits predict work behavior?Answer: Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to higher job performance: For example, highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge, exert greater effort, and have better performance. Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work. Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction. Extrover ts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social skills. Open people are more creative and can be good leaders. Agreeable people are good in social settings. 5. Besides the Big Five, what other personality traits are relevant to OB?Answer: Core Self-Evaluation – The degree to which people like or dislike themselves – Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance Machiavellianism – A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends justify the means. High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more than they are persuaded. They flourish when they have direct interaction, and work with minimal rules and regulations Narcissism – depicted by an arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive admiration.Predictably, they are less effective in their jobs. Self-monitoring, the ability to adjust behavior and risk-taking, the ability to take chances are traits that are also relevant to OB. 6. What ar e values, why are they important, and what is the difference between terminal and instrumental values? Answer: Values are basic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to live your life that is personally or socially preferable – â€Å"How To† live life properly.They are important because they provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behavior, they influence our perception of the world around us, they represent interpretations of â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† and they Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others. The difference between terminal and instrumental values is as follows: Terminal Values are desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.Instrumental Values are preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values. 7. Do values differ across generations? How so? Answer: Yes, values differ considerably across generations . Dominant work values for Veterans entering the workforce in the 19502 or early 1960s are hard-working, conservative, conformity and loyalty to the organization. In contrast, the Nexters in the workforce from 2000 to the present are confident, value financial success are self-reliant and loyal to both self and relationships. 8. Do values differ across cultures?How so? Answer: Yes. According to Hofstede and the GLOBE Project, there are a number of values that differ across cultures: Hofstede’s Framework for assessing culture includes five value dimensions: †¢ Power Distance †¢ Individualism vs. Collectivism †¢ Masculinity vs. Femininity †¢ Uncertainty Avoidance †¢ Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation When these variables are measured, countries vary considerably such as the U. S. ranking #1 in individualism while Colombia ranks 49th. Experiential Exercise WHAT ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE DO YOU PREFER?THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE PROFILE (OCP) CAN HELP ASSES S WHETHER AN INDIVIDUAL’S VALUES MATCH THE ORGANIZATION’S. THE OCP HELPS INDIVIDUALS SORT THEIR CHARACTERISTICS IN TERMS OF IMPORTANCE, WHICH INDICATES WHAT A PERSON VALUES. 1. Working on your own, complete the OCP below. 2. Your instructor may ask you the following questions individually or as group of three or four students (with a spokesperson appointed to speak to the class for each group): a. What were your most preferred and least preferred values? Do you think your most preferred and least preferred values are similar to those of other class or group members? . Do you think there are generational differences in the most preferred and least preferred values? c. Research has shown that individuals tend to be happier, and perform better, when their OCP values match those of their employer. How important do you think a â€Å"values match† is when you’re deciding where you want to work? Ethical Dilemma Hiring Based on Body Art Leonardo’s Pizza in Gainesville, Florida, regularly employs heavily tattooed workers. Tina Taladge and Meghan Dean, for example, are covered from their shoulders to their ankles in colorful tattoos.So many of the employees at Leonardo’s sport tattoos that body art could almost be a qualification for the job. Many employers, however, are not that open to tattoos. Consider Russell Parrish, 29, who lives near Orlando, Florida, and has dozens of tattoos on his arms, hands, torso, and neck. In searching for a job, Parrish walked into 100 businesses, and in 60 cases, he was refused an application. â€Å"I want a career,† Parrish says, â€Å"I want same the shot as everybody else. † Parrish isn’t alone. Many employers, including Walt Disney World, GEICO, SeaWorld, the U. S.Postal Service, and Wal-Mart, have policies against visible tattoos. A survey of employers revealed that 58 percent indicated that they would be less likely to hire someone with visible tattoos or body piercings . â€Å"Perception is everything when it comes to getting a job,† says Elaine Stover, associate director of career services at Arizona State University. â€Å"Some employers and clients could perceive body art negatively. † However, other employers—such as Bank of America, Allstate, and IBM—allow tattoos. Bank of America goes so far as to have a policy against using tattoos as a factor in hiring decisions.Policies toward tattoos vary because, legally, employers can do as they wish. As long as the rule is applied equally to everyone (it would not be permissible to allow tattoos on men but not on women, for example), policies against tattoos are perfectly legal. Though not hiring people with tattoos is discrimination, â€Å"it's legal discrimination,† said Gary Wilson, a Florida employment lawyer. Thirty-six percent of those aged 18 to 25, and 40 percent of those aged 26 to 40, have at least one tattoo, whereas only 15 percent of those over 40 do, ac cording to a fall 2006 survey by the Pew Research Center.One study in American Demographics suggested that 57 percent of senior citizens viewed visible tattoos as â€Å"freakish. † Clint Womack, like most other people with multiple tattoos, realizes there's a line that is dangerous to cross. While the 33-year-old hospital worker’s arms, legs, and much of his torso are covered with tattoos, his hands, neck, and face are clear. â€Å"Tattoos are a choice you make,† he says, â€Å"and you have to live with your choices. † Questions 1. Why do some employers ban tattoos while others don’t mind them?Answer:Tattoos or body art is a choice for individuals and a choice for organizations as to whether they are acceptable or not. 2. Is it fair for employers to reject applicants who have tattoos? Is it fair to require employees, if hired, to conceal their tattoos? Answer: Yes to both questions. Fairness is determined by and based on the policies of the organiz ation. As long as they are applied consistently, the organization has the right to determine whether or not tattoos, visible or otherwise are allowed. To avoid any discriminatory issues, whatever policy is in place must be administered fairly. . Should it be illegal to allow tattoos to be a factor at all in the hiring process? Answer: No. Many factors contribute to the hiring process including appearance. An organization has the right to determine the image of their respective company. Just as an organization establishes its culture, the employees reflect the reputation of the company. Legislation on tattoos would impair the organizations’ right to choose their own employees. Sources: R. R. Hastings, â€Å"Survey: The Demographics of Tattoos and Piercings,† HRWeek, February 2007, www. shrm. org; and H.Wessel, â€Å"Taboo of Tattoos in the Workplace,† Orlando (Florida) Sentinel, May 28, 2007, www. tmcnet. com/usubmit/2007/05/28/2666555. htm> Case Incident 1 THE R ISE OF THE NICE CEO? If asked to describe the traits of an effective CEO, most people would probably use adjectives such as driven, competitive, and tough. While it’s clear that some hard-nosed CEOs, like Blackstone chief executive Stephen Schwarzman (see the chapter opener), are successful, recently some authors have suggested that being â€Å"nice† is really important in today’s workplace, even in the CEO suite.In a recent book titled The No A–hole Rule: Building a Civilized Workplace and Surviving One That Isn't, Stanford management professor Robert Sutton argues that getting along well with others is important to the successful functioning of organizations. Many companies, such as Google, have developed policies to weed out those who habitually behave in an uncivil manner. Lars Dalgaard, CEO of SuccessFactors, a business software company, identifies himself as a recovering Fortune 500 â€Å"a–hole. † Now, Dalgaard has implemented a stric t â€Å"no a–hole† rule in his company.Job interviews are lengthy and feature probing questions designed to uncover any browbeating tendencies. Last year, Dalgaard took candidates vying for a chief financial officer vacancy to lunch at a local restaurant to see how they treated the wait staff. Some got a free lunch but nothing more. When managers and employees are hired, they get a welcome letter from Dalgaard that spells out 15 corporate values, the last of which is â€Å"I will not be an a–hole. † Although it’s not clear whether they’ve read Sutton’s book, some CEOs of Fortune 500 companies do seem to project the image of a â€Å"kinder, gentler CEO. Let’s consider three examples, all of whom were proteges of Jack Welch when he was CEO of General Electric (GE) and of whom were candidates to be his successor: Bob Nardelli, James McNerney, and Jeff Immelt. Bob Nardelli, former CEO, Home Depot. When Bob Nardelli wasn’t c hosen to be CEO of GE, he demanded to know why. Didn’t he have the best numbers? His bitterness was palpable, say GE insiders. When Nardelli became CEO of Home Depot, in his first few months on the job, he became notorious for his imperious manner and explosive temper.At one meeting, he yelled, â€Å"You guys don’t know how to run a f—ing business. † When Nardelli was fired as CEO in 2006, it was due to a combination of factors, including Home Depot’s lackluster stock price, but his abrasive personality played no small part. BusinessWeek wrote: â€Å"With the stock price recently stuck at just over 40, roughly the same as when Nardelli arrived 6 years ago, he could no longer rely on other sterile metrics to assuage the quivering anger his arrogance provoked within every one of his key constituencies: employees, customers, and shareholders. † James McNerney, CEO, Boeing. These are heady days at Boeing, which commands record levels of new orde rs and dominates its European rival Airbus as never before. Most CEOs would take credit for this success. Not James McNerney, who gives the credit to Boeing’s engineers and employees. â€Å"I view myself as a value-added facilitator here more than as someone who's crashing through the waves on the bridge of a frigate,† he says. A former GE colleague compared Nardelli and McNerney, saying, â€Å"Jim’s problems have been as tough, or tougher, than the ones that Bob had to face. But he has tried to solve them in a much more pleasant way.The guy is loved over there at Boeing. † Jeff Immelt, CEO, General Electric. – Although Jeff Immelt is the first to point out that the nickname â€Å"Neutron Jack† for his predecessor Jack Welch was misleading, and that the differences between him and Welch are not as dramatic as some claim, Immelt is noted for his calm demeanor and trusting approach. In speaking of his approach, he said, â€Å"I want to believ e the best in terms of what people can do. And if you want to make a growth culture, you've got to have a way to nurture people and not make them fight so goddamn hard to get any idea through the door. †Questions 1. Do you think Sutton is wrong and that the contrasting fortunes, and personalities, of Nardelli, McNerney, and Immelt are coincidental? Why or why not? Answer: No, Sutton is correct. Interpersonal skills and the ability to develop relationships with people is increasingly more important in today’s economy. The hard line, command and control style of management is no longer as effective as maybe it once was. Nardelli was fired undoubtedly because of the stock price but also because of his abrasive personality. 2. Do you think the importance of being â€Å"nice† varies by industry or type of job?How so? Answer: No, the importance of being nice is based on personality and philosophy. Treating people with respect and trust is universal across industries an d jobs. â€Å"Nice â€Å" also does not mean that the person is a welcome mat, but rather the person has a belief in the golden rule of treating people appropriately and the results will follow. 3. How comfortable would you be working in a culture like that of SuccessFactors, where a certain level of â€Å"niceness† is part of the job description? Answer: This may vary by student, but companies should have core values by which all employees should abide.Teamwork and building relationships are paramount in successful companies so proper treatment of others should be a given. 4. Do you think being â€Å"nice† is the same as the Big Five trait of agreeableness? If so, do you think companies should screen out those who score low on agreeableness? Answer: Agreeableness can be compliant and conforming. Companies also need free and innovative thinkers. This factor in terms of performance is important when applied to lower levels of deviant behavior. Nice may be defined as a greeable but you can be nice and still disagree in a polite and respectful way.Companies should pay attention to this trait although it should not solely be used as a screening mechanism. 5. Earlier we discussed the

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buy custom Crime and Organization Theory essay The organization of crime has been studied in various contexts. Some authors have related the concepts with specific aspects like suicide and murders while others have specialized in criminal groups among other categories. In all these categories, there have been theories that have been put forward to try to explain the meaning of certain behaviors and happenings among different community members and their implications. Some theorists have gone to the extent of trying to demystify the myths on identification of potential offenders using various tools and data gathered from the population and the criminals as well. This will try to answer some fundamental questions based on the study of criminology that set crucial precedence of future and further investigation. This essay focuses mostly on the theoretical part of criminology and pays attention to the authenticity of the theories using scientific validation processes. There are ten questions that will be addressed. Several myths have been put forth as to the occurrence of criminal activities. Some of the myths have later on come to have some scientific backing that has enabled the progress and later on the formulation of theories that support such lines of reasoning. For example, it is normally argued that crime is more of a vicious cycle, one that seems to never come to an end (Geavey, 2002, p. 317). To some extent this seems to have some true grounding. For example, in the works of Harvey (2009), it is noted that based on the crime rates that have continued to be recorded in the business arena, it is clear that the mechanisms and strategies that have been put in place to counter the problem have mainly focused on creation of arsenals for law enforcement in the fields (p. 97). It is noted that criminal activities continue to thrive because there have been reluctant laws in ensuring better detection and dealing with the offenders, hence the necessity in offenders to commit more criminal activities (Harvey, 2009, p. 97). It has also been said that there exists a righteous belief in money laundering whereby criminals continue to grow at such an alarming rate that it has become a threat to the financial systems (Harvey, 2009, p. 97). This is mainly attributed to the fact that money laundering is keenly associated with better lifestyle which in effect reduces the possibility of proper detection and subsequent prosecution of the activities carried out since there are better mechanisms of sealing theloopholes by employment of professionals in different fields who are well paid to do that job (Harvey, 2009, p. 97). Science can clarify this misconception by separating the actual act of crime and classification in the right sections. In doing so it becomes relatively easy to verify whether this myth is verifiable or just another scam. The beauty of scientific verification and accreditation of various issues is the fact that it lays down all the assumptions and then builds a case from fundamentally accepted assumptions. Various theories have been put forward as far as the actual cause of criminal activities is concerned. The same happens with the ways and means of prevention of criminal activities and control measures. For example, according to (Rushton, 2000; Rushton Whitney, 2002) there is a proposition of the evolutionary life-history theory. In this theory, it is proposed that racial differences have to a great extent the possibility of inclinations towards crime at different depths. For example, it is noted that the Blacks who are mainly of African descent are much more prone to criminal activities than any other regions races in the world (Rushton, 2000; Rushton Whitney, 2002) and (Gorecki, 1974). Furthermore, it is noted that in Britain the Blacks accounted for 2 % of the general population while in the jails in Britain the Blacks accounted for a whopping 15 % of the population (Rushton, 2000; Rushton Whitney, 2002). On the other hand, the Asians were the least likely to have criminal acti vities as it was found that they only accounted for about 2 % of the prison population (Rushton Whitney, 2002). There are various ways to prevent crime. However, the most commonly proposed and applied method is the utilization of the CPTED which is an acronym for crime prevention through environmental design as found in the works of Cozen, Saville and Hillier (2005). This is the application of various methods of nature and other modified acts to reduce the possibility of crime occurrence. There are six essential approaches that have been utilized in this work. First, there is application of territoriality whereby there is better execution of ownership sense (Rushton Whitney, 2002). Secondly, it is proposed that surveillance is essential especially in regions termed as zones of intensity since in such areas there is higher density of population and there is likelihood of criminal activities like pick pocketing. SSurveillance using gadgets like the CCTV help to reduce the occurrence of crimes like car crimes, fraud among other crimes (Rushton Whitney, 2002). Thirdly, provision of access contro l especially in public complexes and having activity support like during pedestrian crossing will also help prevent crimes (Rushton Whitney, 2002) and (Moffat, 1983). There is also image management on premises to avert drug dealings and target handling using physical barriers like gates, alarm bells among other things (Rushton Whitney, 2002). According to Wacker (2008), a theory is a set of conceptual relationships that has already been explained. Metcalfe (2004) adds to this notion claiming that a theory is a speculation and a proposal that needs to be proved and is not in itself self-evident. Proof can presented either through argumentation or application of necessary reasoning while in mathematical terms it means to distinguish a problem from what needs to be done (Metcalfe, 2004). A theory becomes a scientific theory if it is capable of fulfilling certain conditions. First, the theory must be able to answer very common questions, for example, What? When? How? Why?Also, the theory is able to prove what should, would and/ or could happen in the event provided the previous questions are answered (Wacker, 2008). It is also noted that the progress of science is also dependent on the language of utility. Most theories that have been proposed in recent times fail to address this issue and lag behind in definition of basic concepts and jargons used in the work thus making it to be disapproved as scientific (Wacker, 2008). The definitions need to be clear and concise and in line with the work that there are being presented for. In addition, the definition has to be unique in that it has not been previously used. According to the classical school of causation of criminology, it is said that the rate of criminal activity is mainly based on the likelihood of the crime appealing less risky and more beneficial in the long run to the criminals (Savelsberg, 2006). It is also said that when the criminals target a certain victim, they take calculated risks on the likelihood of being caught and the probable consequences that would follow, if they were caught (Savelsberg, 2006). The criminals also calculate the possibility of escaping as well as the benefits that would emanate upon successful escape (Savelsberg, 2006). Buy custom Crime and Organization Theory essay